Definition of abuse

Abuse and neglect are forms of maltreatment of a child. Somebody may abuse or neglect a child by inflicting harm, or by failing to act to prevent harm. Children maybe abused in a family or in an institutional or community setting, by those known to them, by a stranger or via the internet. They may be abused by an adult or adults, or another child or children.

An abused child is any boy or girl, under 18 years of age, who has experienced, or is believed likely to be at risk of, significant risk of neglect, and / or physical, emotional or sexual abuse.

Physical abuse
(including when masqueraded as discipline and chastisement)

The following definition is taken from Working Together (Working Together 2018)

Physical abuse may involve hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning or scalding, drowning, suffocating, or otherwise causing physical harm to a child. Physical harm may also be caused when a parent or carer fabricates the symptoms of, or deliberately induces, illness in a child.

Physical abuse often arises from a wish to chastise. Smacking is illegal in England but has a legal defence of “reasonable chastisement” under Section 58 of the Children Act 2004 but only in a charge of common assault. Whether a ‘smack’ amounts to reasonable chastisement will depend on the circumstances of each case, taking into consideration factors e.g. age of the child and the nature of the smack.

The introduction of section 54 of the Children Act 2004 changed the law, to remove the reasonable chastisement defence for actual bodily harm. Actual bodily harm includes minor visible injuries such as a graze, a scratch, an abrasion or bruising around the eye. Common assault implies a transient trifling injury such as reddening of the skin or no injury at all. The use of an implement to hit a child though not specifically prohibited is more likely to leave a mark. Thus, the law allows a parent to smack a child where doing so leaves no mark upon the skin, so only light smacks are permitted. “Over chastisement” which implies at least actual bodily harm would be against the law and the reasonable chastisement defence would not apply. This means, for example, that a parent can no longer justify beating a child on the grounds that the child is difficult to raise.

Although the reasonable chastisement defence only applies to the criminal law the concept influences decisions taken in the family courts. The defence applies only to parents and adults acting in loco parentis (teacher or other adult responsible for the children) with the parent’s permission. Physical chastisement, i.e. corporal punishment, of any form has been prohibited in state schools since 1986, private since 1998 and by child minders since 2003.

It is important that all professionals treat injuries caused to children by their parents as an assault and do not condone or excuse this because their intention was to discipline the child. Professionals should be cautious about referring to such assaults as “overchastisement” as this can have the effect of minimising the impact on the child of the injuries or implying the child’s behaviour was a contributory cause.

There is evidence that even smacking allowed within the law is harmful to children. For example, minor forms of regular smacking of pre-school children is associated with an increased risk of antisocial behaviour after 2-3 years even when allowing for other parenting risk factors and the presence of such behaviour at study entry 6, 7 Maternal depression and violence between adult partners are associated with a greater risk of smacking children than either factor present alone regardless of child behaviour.8 Parents who experience physical punishment in their childhood are more likely to smack their own children.

Signs

Although these signs do not necessarily indicate that a child has been physically abused, they may help adults recognise that something is wrong. The possibility of physical abuse should be investigated if a child shows a number of these symptoms, or any of them to a marked degree:

• Unexplained recurrent injuries or burns
• Improbable excuses or refusal to explain injuries
• Wearing clothes to cover injuries, even in hot weather
• Refusal to undress for gym
• Bald patches
• Multiple missing episodes
• Fear of medical help or examination
• Self-harming tendencies
• Aggression towards others
• Fear of physical contact – shrinking back if touched
• Admitting that they are punished, but the punishment is excessive (such as a child being beaten every night to ‘make him study’)
• Fear of suspected abuser being contacted

Emotional Abuse

The following definition is taken from Working Together (Working Together 2018)

Emotional abuse is a form of Significant Harm which involves the persistent emotional maltreatment of a child such as to cause severe and persistent adverse effects on the child’s emotional development.

It may involve conveying to children that they are worthless or unloved, inadequate, or valued only insofar as they meet the needs of another person. It may include not giving the child opportunities to express their views, deliberately silencing them or “making fun” of what they say or how they communicate. It may feature age or developmentally inappropriate expectations being imposed on children.

These may include interactions that are beyond the child’s developmental capability, as well as overprotection and limitation of exploration and learning, or preventing the child participating in normal social interaction. It may involve seeing or hearing the ill-treatment of another. It may involve serious bullying (including cyberbullying) causing children frequently to feel frightened or in danger, or the exploitation or corruption of children.

Some level of emotional abuse is involved in all types of maltreatment of a child, though it may occur alone.

Signs

Although these signs do not necessarily indicate that a child has been emotionally abused, they may help adults recognise that something is wrong. The possibility of emotional abuse should be investigated if a child shows a number of these symptoms, or any of them to a marked degree:

• Physical, mental and emotional development delay
• Sudden speech disorders
• Continual self-depreciation (‘I’m stupid, ugly, worthless, etc’)
• Overreaction to mistakes
• Extreme fear of any new situation
• Inappropriate response to pain (‘I deserve this’)
• Neurotic behaviour (rocking, hair twisting, self-mutilation)
• Extremes of passivity or aggression
• Inability to cope with praise
• An unwillingness or inability to play

Sexual Abuse

The following definition is taken from Working Together (Working Together 2018)

Sexual abuse is a form of Significant Harm which involves forcing or enticing a child or young person to take part in sexual activities, not necessarily involving a high level of violence, whether or not the child is aware of what is happening. The activities may involve physical contact, including assault by penetration (for example rape or oral sex) or non-penetrative acts such as masturbation, kissing, rubbing and touching outside of clothing. They may also include non-contact activities, such as involving children in looking at, or in the production of, sexual images, watching sexual activities, encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways, or grooming a child in preparation for abuse (including via the Internet). Sexual abuse is not solely perpetrated by adult males. Women can also commit acts of sexual abuse, as can other children.

Signs

Although these signs do not necessarily indicate that a child has been sexually abused, they may help adults recognise that something is wrong. The possibility of sexual abuse should be investigated if a child shows a number of these symptoms, or any of them to a marked degree:

• Being overly affectionate or knowledgeable in a sexual way inappropriate to the child’s age
• Medical problems such as chronic itching, pain in the genitals, venereal diseases
• Other extreme reactions, such as depression, self-mutilation, suicide attempts, running away, overdoses, anorexia
• Personality changes such as becoming insecure or clinging
• Regressing to younger behaviour patterns such as thumb sucking or bringing out discarded cuddly toys
• Sudden loss of appetite or compulsive eating
• Being isolated or withdrawn
• Inability to concentrate
• Lack of trust or fear of someone they know well, such as not wanting to be alone with a babysitter or child minder
• Starting to wet again, day or night/nightmares
• Become worried about clothing being removed
• Suddenly drawing sexually explicit pictures
• Trying to be ‘ultra-good’ or perfect; overreacting to criticism

Neglect

The following definition is taken from Working Together (Working Together 2018)

Neglect is the persistent failure to meet a child’s basic physical and/or psychological needs, likely to result in the serious impairment of the child’s health or development. Neglect may occur during pregnancy as a result of maternal substance abuse. Once a child is born neglect may involve a parent or carer failing to:

• provide adequate food, clothing and shelter (including exclusion from home or abandonment)
• protect a child from physical and emotional harm or danger
• ensure adequate supervision (including the use of inadequate caregiver) • ensure access to appropriate medical care or treatment.

It may also include neglect of, or unresponsiveness to, a child’s basic emotional needs.

Signs

Although these signs do not necessarily indicate that a child has experienced neglect, they may help adults recognise that something is wrong. The possibility of neglect should be investigated if a child shows a number of these symptoms, or any of them to a marked degree:

• Constant hunger
• Poor personal hygiene
• Constant tiredness
• Poor state of clothing/lacks sufficient clothing for the weather
• Emaciation
• Untreated medical problems
• No social relationships
• Compulsive scavenging
• Destructive tendencies
• Learning disabilities due to poor brain development

Note: A child may be subjected to a combination of different kinds of abuse. It is also possible that a child may show no outward signs and hide what is happening from everyone.

Child Sexual Exploitation

The following definition is taken from DfE: Child Sexual Exploitation, February 2017

Child sexual exploitation is a form of child sexual abuse. Sexual abuse may involve physical contact, including assault by penetration (for example, rape or oral sex) or non- penetrative acts such as masturbation, kissing, rubbing and touching outside clothing. It may include non-contact activities, such as involving children in the production of sexual images, forcing children to look at sexual images or watch sexual activities, encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways or grooming a child in preparation for abuse (including via the internet).

The definition of child sexual exploitation is as follows:

Child sexual exploitation is a form of child sexual abuse. It occurs where an individual or group takes advantage of an imbalance of power to coerce, manipulate or deceive a child or young person under the age of 18 into sexual activity (a) in exchange for something the victim needs or wants, and/or (b) for the financial advantage or increased status of the perpetrator or facilitator. The victim may have been sexually exploited even if the sexual activity appears consensual. Child sexual exploitation does not always involve physical contact; it can also occur through the use of technology.

Child sexual exploitation is never the victim’s fault, even if there is some form of exchange: all children and young people under the age of 18 have a right to be safe and should be protected from harm.

Sexual exploitation can have links to other types of crime. These include:

• Child trafficking
• Domestic abuse
• Sexual violence in intimate relationships
• Grooming (including online grooming)
• Abusive images of children and their distribution
• Drugs-related offences
• Gang-related activity
• Immigration-related offences
• Domestic servitude

The following vulnerabilities are examples of the types of things children can experience that might make them more susceptible to child sexual exploitation:

• Having a prior experience of neglect, physical and/or sexual abuse
• Lack of a safe/stable home environment, now or in the past (domestic abuse or parental substance misuse, mental health issues or criminality, for example)
• Recent bereavement or loss
• Social isolation or social difficulties
• Absence of a safe environment to explore sexuality
• Economic vulnerability
• Homelessness or insecure accommodation status
• Connections with other children and young people who are being sexually exploited
• Family members or other connections involved in adult sex work
• Having a physical or learning disability
• Being in care (particularly those in residential care and those with interrupted care histories)
• Sexual identity

Children rarely self-report child sexual exploitation so it is important that practitioners are aware of potential indicators of risk, including:

• Acquisition of money, clothes, mobile phones etc. without plausible explanation; • Gang-association and/or isolation from peers/social networks;
• Exclusion or unexplained absences from school, college or work;
• Leaving home/care without explanation and persistently going missing or returning late;
• Excessive receipt of texts/phone calls;
• Returning home under the influence of drugs/alcohol;
• Inappropriate sexualised behaviour for age/sexually transmitted infections;
• Evidence of/suspicions of physical or sexual assault;
• Relationships with controlling or significantly older individuals or groups;
• Multiple callers (unknown adults or peers);
• Frequenting areas known for sex work;
• Concerning use of internet or other social media;
• Increasing secretiveness around behaviours; and
• Self-harm or significant changes in emotional well-being.

Children can be perpetrators as well as victims

Children can be both experiencing child sexual exploitation and perpetrating it at the same time. Examples might include a child who is forced to take part in the exploitation of another child under duress, or a child who is forced to introduce other children to their abuser under threats to their family’s safety. These situations require a nuanced approach that recognises and engages with the young person’s perpetration within the context of their own victimisation.

Children who perpetrate child sexual exploitation require a different response to adult perpetrators. Responses may involve criminal justice pathways at times, however every child who displays harmful sexual behaviour should also have their safeguarding and welfare needs actively considered in line with Working Together.

Safeguarding children is everyone’s responsibility. All practitioners should assume that in the course of their work with children they will encounter children at risk of sexual exploitation. All practitioners working with children and families need to know where to get help: Local multi-agency safeguarding arrangements will set out the process for referring concerns about the welfare of children to local authority children’s social care. Anyone can make a referral and ask for advice. If a child is considered to be in immediate danger the police should be contacted.

Child Criminal Exploitation

The following definition is taken from the Government website: Guidance exploitation and vulnerable adults: county lines, February 2020

What is child criminal exploitation?

Child criminal exploitation is increasingly used to describe this type of exploitation where children are involved, and is defined as:

“Child criminal exploitation is common in county lines and occurs where an individual or group takes advantage of an imbalance of power to coerce, control, manipulate or deceive a child or young person under the age of 18. The victim may have been criminally exploited even if the activity appears consensual. Child criminal exploitation does not always involve physical contact; it can also occur through the use of technology.”

Criminal exploitation of children is broader than just county lines and includes for instance children forced to work on cannabis farms or to commit theft.

Dangers of criminal exploitation (as define on NSPCC website)

It’s important to be aware of the risks of criminal exploitation or being involved with a criminal gang. They can use different tactics to recruit and exploit children and young people, including bribing them with rewards, befriending them, and threatening them, or coercing them.

Dangers of criminal exploitation include: 

• being subject to threats, blackmail and violence 
• being exploited and forced to commit crimes
• being arrested, including for crimes committed by the gang that they have not directly committed under the law of joint enterprise
• not being able to leave or cut off ties with the gang
• having their safety or the safety of friends and family threatened
• risk of physical harm, rape and sexual abuse
• risk of emotional abuse
• risk of severe injury or being killed
• abusing drugs, alcohol and other substances
• long term impact on education and employment options.

Exploiting a child into committing crimes in abusive. Children who are targeted can also be groomed, physically abused, emotionally abused, sexually exploited or trafficked. However, as children involved in gangs often commit crimes themselves, sometimes they are not seen as victims by adults and professionals, despite the harm they have experienced. It’s important to spot the signs and act quickly if you think a child is being groomed or is becoming involved with a gang.

Please visit the NSPCC website for further guidance on Child Criminal Exploitation

Effects of Domestic Abuse

Please see the NSPCC website for guidance on advice for professionals on how to support children exposed to domestic abuse.

Effects of domestic abuse (NSPCC website)
Living in a home where domestic abuse happens can have a serious impact on a child or young person’s mental and physical wellbeing, as well as their behaviour. And this can last into adulthood.
What’s important is to make sure the abuse stops and that children have a safe and stable environment to grow up in.
Our services can support children and young people who have experienced domestic abuse to help them move on and receive the care they need.

Extremism

The following definition is taken from Working Together (Working Together 2018)

Extremism goes beyond terrorism and includes people who target the vulnerable – including the young – by seeking to sow division between communities on the basis of race, faith or denomination; justify discrimination towards women and girls; persuade others that minorities are inferior; or argue against the primacy of democracy and the rule of law in our society.

Extremism is defined in the Counter Extremism Strategy 2015 as the vocal or active opposition to our fundamental values, including the rule of law, individual liberty and the mutual respect and tolerance of different faiths and beliefs. We also regard calls for the death of members of our armed forces as extremist.

Bullying and Cyberbullying

Bullying affects everyone at some point in their lives. It may be at school, at college, in an activity group or club, in the workplace or even at home.

Parents, carers, teachers and others working with children have a duty to take action if they suspect or discover that child(ren) are being bullied.

Bullying includes:

• People calling you names
• Making things up to get another person into trouble
• Hitting, pinching, biting, pushing and shoving
• Taking things away from someone
• Damaging another person’s belongings
• Stealing someone’s money
• Taking friends away from them
• ‘Cyberbullying’
• Spreading rumours
• Upskirting – this is a criminal offence and must be reported to the Police.
• Threats and intimidation
• Making silent or abusive phone calls
• Bullies can also frighten the victim so that they don’t want to go to school or take part in other activities.
• The victim may pretend to be ill to avoid the bully

Cyberbullying is bullying that takes place online. Unlike bullying in the real world, online bullying can follow the child wherever they go, via social networks, gaming and mobile phone. Types of cyberbullying can include:

• Sending threatening or abusive text messages
• Creating and sharing embarrassing images or videos
• Trolling – the sending of menacing or upsetting messages on social networks, chat rooms or online games
• Excluding children from online games, activities or friendship groups
• Shaming someone online
• Setting up hate sites or groups about a particular child
• Encouraging young people to self-harm
• Voting for or against someone in an abusive poll
• Creating fake accounts, hijacking or stealing online identities to embarrass a young person or cause trouble using their name
• Sending explicit messages, also known as sexting
• Pressuring children into sending sexual images or engaging in sexual conversations.

Developing a ‘Code of Conduct’ with children and young people can assist with minimising the opportunity for bullying and encourage their participation in the activities of the group.